AI 칩 아키텍처의 혁명

At the 2018 International Symposium on Computer Architecture , John Hennessy and David Patterson delivered their Turing Lecture: "A New Golden Age for Computer Architecture" . In the 1980s, when Hennessy and Patterson did their Turing Award-winning research, single-threaded CPU performance grew 52% a year. By 2018, with the end of Moore's Law and Dennard Scaling , the rate was 3%. There was a need for domain-specific architectures (DSAs). Their worked example was Google's TPU v1 , already in production: 29× the throughput of a CPU on neural-network inference, at 80× better energy efficiency. The closing prediction: "the next decade will see a Cambrian explosion of novel computer architectures." This prediction came true. Today, we now have dozens of architectures in serious development. GPUs , TPUs , LPUs , NPUs , DPUs , ASICs , wafer-scale engines , reconfigurable dataflow , neuromorphic , photonic , analog . Particularly, these architectures focus on compute for AI . The architectures that have won real deployment so far: GPUs (NVIDIA, AMD), systolic-array accelerators (TPU, Trainium), the Cerebras Wafer-Scale Engine , and the Groq LPU . NVIDIA is the clear frontrunner; AMD follows, with 6 GW commitments from both OpenAI and Meta . TPUs train Gemini and will serve Anthropic with up to a million chips ; Anthropic also runs Claude on over a million Trainium chips . Cerebras now serves OpenAI inference ; the Groq LPU was folded into NVIDIA via a $20B acquihire . This post aims to survey these varying approaches - their philosophy , architecture , scaling methods (scale-up and scale-out) , and software stack (how you program the chip) . The Problem AI compute is dominated by matrix multiplication . A transformer is a sequence of matmuls: Q/K/V projection , attention , output projection , FFN - interleaved with element-wise ops: normalisation, activation, residual adds. Training a frontier model performs 10 25 10^{25} 1 0 25 multiply-accumulate operations (matmuls are a sequence of multiply-accumulates). The shape of those matmuls depends on the workload. Training pushes a batch of sequences forward through every layer, backpropagates the loss, and updates the weights, with thousands of tokens flowing through the same weight matrix at once. Prefill is the prompt-ingestion phase of inference: the full input sequence projected through the model in a single pass, before the first output token has been produced. Both training & prefill stack many tokens against the same weight matrix, so each layer's math is a large matrix-matrix multiply (GEMM), with high arithmetic intensity (compute-bound). Decode is autoregressive: the model emits one token at a time, each conditioned on every token before it, and token N+1 cannot begin until token N has been produced. Only one token gets projected per step, so every matmul becomes a matrix-vector product (GEMV). Producing one token requires a full pass over every weight in the model, plus a full read of the KV Cache for attention. Arithmetic intensity drops by orders of magnitude versus prefill . Inference systems recover some of that intensity by batching tokens to promote those GEMVs back to GEMMs: continuous batching stacks many users' decode steps, speculative decoding stacks K drafted tokens per request and verifies them in one pass, and multi-token prediction folds the same trick inside the model itself. This achieves higher utilisation of the matmul units, and pushes up the Ops/B. For continuous batching, each user's request still reads its own KV Cache , so long-context decode shifts from weight-bandwidth-bound to KV-bandwidth-bound. The architecture problem here is moving the numbers to where the matmuls happens fast enough. This is known as the memory wall : compute has scaled exponentially, memory bandwidth has not. Each architecture proposes a different strategy for winning the data-movement game. Understanding a chip reduces to four questions: where does data live , how does it move to the compute units, what do the compute units look like, and how do chips talk to each other at scale . NVIDIA GPU The NVIDIA GPU is a massively parallel processor . The philosophy is that a programmable chip with thousands of threads, orchestrated by a host CPU and exposed through CUDA , is the right machine to run parallelisable workloads. Each generation adds acceleration primitives onto programmable Streaming Multiprocessors without changing the programming model. The same chip trains transformers, serves inference, renders graphics, and runs scientific simulation ( accelerated computing ).